From the Berlin Conference to the Carnation Revolution: The Legacy and Future of Relations between Portugal and Africa.

The history of colonization and decolonization in Africa is a complex narrative, shaped by economic and political interests that determined the fate of multiple nations. For Portugal, a country whose identity is deeply intertwined with its maritime explorations and expansive colonial empire, the presence in Africa represented centuries of national pride and continuity. However, with the Berlin Conference of 1884, Portugal’s colonial holdings were challenged by the international stage, where emerging European powers sought to expand their influence over African territories.

In this article, I examine the path that led to the division of Africa and Portugal's position within this context of growing European imperialism. The Berlin Conference formalized the division of the African continent among European powers, drawing artificial borders and disregarding Africa's rich cultural and ethnic diversity. Portugal’s resistance to relinquish its colonies, based on claims of historical priority and a vision of a pluricontinental empire, faced increasing challenges, both from international pressures and from internal consequences.

Throughout the 20th century, these accumulated tensions would culminate in the Carnation Revolution of 1974, a movement that transformed Portugal and led to the decolonization of its African territories. The colonial war that preceded the revolution, waged in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau, imposed a deep and lasting toll on Portuguese society, both economically and in terms of human impact. This period not only strained the nation’s resources but also left scars that would ultimately shape Portugal’s identity as it sought to rebuild itself.

This article explores this legacy, addressing the partition of Africa, the superpower pressures before and after WWII, the decolonization spurred by the Carnation Revolution, and, finally, the lessons these events offer for the future. Here, I examine how the mistakes of the past can be used as lessons to build a more equal and collaborative relationship between Portugal and Portuguese-speaking African nations, reflecting on the possibilities for a future grounded in mutual respect and cooperation.

1. The Berlin Conference and the Partition of Africa

The Berlin Conference, held between 1884 and 1885, is a decisive milestone in the history of European colonialism in Africa. Organized by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the conference aimed to regulate European exploitation and occupation of the African continent, gathering representatives from 14 European nations and the United States. Officially presented as an attempt to avoid conflicts between European powers, the conference served primarily as a formal division of African resources, with participating nations drawing artificial borders and delineating areas of economic and strategic interest.

The reality is that the conference was convened in a context of intense nationalism and imperialist competition within Europe. Colonial powers, including Portugal, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Belgium, viewed Africa as a rich source of resources and a region to extend their political and economic influence. The Berlin Conference thus symbolized not only a race for resources but also the disregard of European powers for the sovereignty of African peoples.

1.1 Portugal and the Claim to Historical Priority

Portugal, a pioneer in maritime exploration and colonization in the 15th century, participated in the Berlin Conference determined to protect its African territories, particularly Angola and Mozambique. Portugal’s position rested on the idea of historical priority—the claim that, as one of the first nations to explore and establish outposts in Africa, it had the right to maintain its possessions. Historical figures like Diogo Cão, Vasco da Gama, and Bartolomeu Dias were presented as evidence of Portugal's long-standing connection to the African continent.

This concept of historical priority was especially important to Portugal during a period of rising nationalism. The 1886 Pink Map represented Portugal’s ambitious plan to create a contiguous territory linking Angola and Mozambique, symbolizing Portugal’s attempt to consolidate its African empire. However, this proposal faced resistance, particularly from the United Kingdom, which saw Portuguese expansion as an obstacle to its own project to connect Cairo to Cape Town. The dispute culminated in the 1890 British Ultimatum, an episode that forced Portugal to relinquish part of its ambitions, sparking a wave of revolt and anti-British sentiment in Portuguese society.

This period tested the resilience of Portuguese diplomats, who, despite international pressures, managed to retain a significant presence in Africa through strategic negotiations. Portugal’s determination to preserve its empire reflected a commitment to the idea of a “Pluricontinental Portugal,” a nation that spanned multiple continents, united by language, culture, and economy.

1.2 Impact of Artificial Borders

One of the most lasting legacies of the Berlin Conference was the division of Africa into artificial borders, drawn according to the interests of colonial powers but without consideration for the cultural, linguistic, and ethnic realities of the continent. Tribes and kingdoms that had coexisted were divided, while rival groups were forced to live under the same colonial administration, leading to conflicts and tensions that persist to this day.

An example of this impact is the enclave of Cabinda, an oil-rich region that, despite its cultural connection to Angola, was isolated during the colonial partition and later became a focus of disputes and instability. Another example is the Great Lakes region, where colonial borders between Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi created ethnic conflicts that would result in wars and genocide in the 20th century.

For Portugal, the commitment to the integrity of its African colonies became a matter of national identity and pride, particularly after the British Ultimatum. Despite economic and political challenges, Portugal saw itself as an overseas power with a civilizational mission in Africa. Portugal’s stance reflected a desire to maintain its sovereignty and importance on the international stage, even as a relatively smaller power compared to Britain and France.

These artificial borders not only fragmented communities and nations but also complicated the post-independence nation-building process, creating governance challenges and structural problems in future African nations. The lack of regard for the cultural and ethnic composition of territories led to internal conflicts, such as the civil wars in Angola and Mozambique after decolonization. These conflicts were aggravated by superpower intervention during the Cold War, transforming colonial divisions into points of geopolitical tension.

1.3 Portugal and the Concept of the “Civilizing Mission”

Another relevant aspect of Portugal’s stance during the Berlin Conference was the concept of the civilizing mission. Like other colonial powers, Portugal justified its presence in Africa as a means to bring “civilization” to African peoples. This concept was rooted in Eurocentric and paternalistic ideologies that overlooked pre-existing African cultures, technologies, and governance systems.

The civilizing mission was used to justify the imposition of European political and social structures, often replacing local traditions and practices. This had a profound impact on Portuguese colonies, where education, religion, and governance systems were shaped according to European models. The indigenato system, a structure of segregation and exploitation that classified Africans as second-class citizens, exemplifies how this ideology was implemented in practice.

This system created a divide between colonizers and local populations, fostering resentment that would later manifest during independence movements in the 1960s and 1970s. Additionally, the concept of the civilizing mission shaped how Portugal viewed itself in relation to the colonies, legitimizing a relationship of superiority and control that left a legacy of inequality.

2. International Pressures and World War II

World War II brought with it a series of political and economic pressures that significantly impacted Portuguese colonies and Portugal's position as a colonial power. Although Portugal, under the authoritarian regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, maintained a policy of neutrality during the conflict, the war placed the country in a delicate position, particularly concerning its African colonies. In a global landscape marked by the rise of superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—and the decline of traditional colonial powers, Portugal struggled to maintain its empire amidst increasing pressures to decolonize.

After the war, the international landscape became even more challenging for colonial nations. The establishment of the United Nations in 1945, with its Charter advocating the right of peoples to self-determination, intensified demands for independence in the colonies and increased pressure on Portugal to reconsider its colonial policy. The Portuguese government, however, refused to respond to these demands, insisting on its vision of an indivisible and pluricontinental empire.

Compared to the emerging colonial powers at the Berlin Conference, such as Britain and France, Portugal held a unique position: a smaller yet historically established colonial power, whose national identity was deeply intertwined with its presence in Africa. While the United Kingdom and France viewed Africa primarily as a new economic and geopolitical frontier, where they could expand their colonial ambitions and systematically extract resources, Portugal defended its “historical priority.” This argument was based on centuries of maritime exploration and territorial presence dating back to the 15th century.

In contrast to the more expansive and pragmatic interests of larger colonial powers, Portugal’s presence was also a matter of national identity and historical continuity, representing an empire that Salazar saw as culturally and spiritually unified. Portugal, therefore, resisted growing pressures to decolonize not only for economic reasons but also to uphold its legacy as one of Europe’s first maritime powers. This position contrasted directly with the approach of larger powers, which were more willing to adapt their colonial policies in response to changing global dynamics.

2.1 Roosevelt’s Letter to the Kremlin

One of the controversial documents of the period was a supposed letter from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Kremlin, published by the French newspaper Le Figaro in 1951. According to reports, Roosevelt wrote to the Soviet government in 1941: “Regarding Africa, Spain and Portugal should be compensated for renouncing their territories to ensure a better global balance.” The letter suggested that Portugal’s and Spain’s colonies could be ceded as a way to rebalance world power, ensuring strategic access to Africa and securing alliances essential in the fight against the Nazi regime.

While some historians question the authenticity of this letter, it offers insight into superpower intentions concerning the African continent. Roosevelt, like other superpower leaders, viewed colonies as key pieces on the global political chessboard. The offer to cede Portuguese territories to secure Soviet cooperation illustrates how colonies were seen as geopolitical resources rather than as nations with the right to self-determination. Furthermore, this proposal underscores how Portugal’s wartime neutrality was viewed as a barrier to implementing a comprehensive strategy for geopolitical domination in Africa.

If true, this correspondence between Roosevelt and Stalin suggests that Portugal’s resistance to cede its territories could be seen as a defiance of the new status quo established by the superpowers. Yet, Salazar’s regime’s insistence on maintaining its colonial empire reflected both national pride and a refusal to submit to external interests that could undermine Portuguese sovereignty.

2.2 Geopolitics and Portugal’s Role

For Salazar, the African colonies were more than simple territorial extensions—they were symbols of Portugal’s prestige and historical continuity. The regime promoted the concept of Pluricontinental Portugal, integrating colonies as essential, indivisible parts of the Portuguese nation. Salazar insisted that Portugal was not a colonizing power but a nation extended across continents, united by language, culture, and a “civilizing mission.”

However, maintaining this position in an increasingly anti-colonial world required a rigid and isolationist stance. During the war years, Portugal sustained its neutrality policy and preserved colonies as strategic territories, serving as a base for exporting crucial natural resources for the Portuguese economy. In Angola, for instance, petroleum and mining industries were vital to Portugal’s trade balance, while Mozambique’s agricultural production supported the regime economically.

This stance, however, came with high costs. Diplomatic sanctions and pressures against Portugal mounted, and the country was frequently isolated in international discussions about the right to independence. In 1961, the United Nations passed Resolution 1514, establishing the right to self-determination and emphasizing the need for decolonization. Portugal, however, refused to comply, arguing that its colonies were integral parts of the Portuguese territory and, therefore, not subject to decolonization principles.

This refusal to yield to international pressures generated tensions with Western powers, who viewed Portugal as a strategic partner but whose colonial policy conflicted with post-war values. Even the United States, with an interest in maintaining Portugal as a NATO ally, began to press the Portuguese government to initiate decolonization. This tension ultimately resulted in a standoff that placed Portugal in a vulnerable and isolated position in international politics.

2.3 Superpower Involvement and Implications for Portugal

Portugal’s stance on its colonies was increasingly challenged by the growing rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, who viewed the African continent as a strategic battleground during the Cold War. Each superpower sought to expand its ideological and political influence through support for independence movements or colonial governments aligned with its interests.

For the United States, Portugal’s position represented a dilemma: while an ally in NATO, the Americans also advocated decolonization in other regions. This ambiguity manifested in various circumstances. In some cases, the CIA discreetly supported independence movements, such as the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), to counter the growing support of the Soviet Union and Cuba for the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). Angola thus became one of the first African territories to directly experience Cold War tensions, transforming it into a prolonged and devastating conflict zone.

On the other hand, the Soviet Union saw Portuguese colonies as spaces where it could expand its anti-colonial influence while promoting socialism. Supporting movements like the MPLA in Angola and FRELIMO in Mozambique, the Soviet Union established alliances with anti-colonial forces, using these territories as strategic points for spreading its ideology. These alliances set the stage for Cuban intervention in Angola in the 1970s and later for direct superpower involvement.

These dynamics further complicated Portugal’s position. On one hand, the country needed to maintain trust and support from the United States and NATO; on the other, it refused to give in to pressures to decolonize, fearing the loss of economically vital territories. This impasse led to a series of dilemmas that would shape Portugal’s stance in the following decades and foreshadow the need for a profound transformation, which would come with the Carnation Revolution of 1974.

3. The Carnation Revolution and April 25th

The Carnation Revolution, which occurred on April 25, 1974, stands as one of the most significant events in modern Portuguese history. This peaceful uprising, led by young military officers, was driven by exhaustion and growing discontent with the Colonial War—a prolonged and unpopular conflict in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau.

For many Portuguese citizens, the economic and social impact of the war had become increasingly heavy, affecting daily life and generating widespread dissatisfaction with the regime. After years of costly combat and mounting international pressure to end colonial rule, the revolution became a profound expression of change, reflecting the Portuguese people's desire to transform the political system and end an era of authoritarianism.

For Portugal's African colonies, the Carnation Revolution marked the beginning of a new era. Without the protection of an authoritarian regime to preserve the unity of the empire, the colonies swiftly claimed independence. However, the absence of a structured decolonization plan left a power vacuum soon filled by liberation movements backed by foreign powers. This rapid and chaotic process had lasting consequences for Angola, Mozambique, and other colonies, which would become ideological and strategic battlegrounds during the Cold War.

3.1 Decolonization and the Role of the Superpowers

With the fall of Salazar’s regime and the end of dictatorship, Portugal's African colonies began actively pursuing independence. Yet the transition to independence was marked by a lack of preparation and by contradictory internal and international policies. Instead of a gradual and organized process, the Portuguese withdrawal was abrupt, and many territories were left in states of extreme vulnerability. The situation became particularly complex in Angola and Mozambique, where rival independence movements competed for control, each backed by different superpowers.

Angola, for instance, became a Cold War epicenter in Africa. Three liberation movements vied for power: the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which was socialist-aligned and backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba; the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), supported by the United States and Zaire; and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), initially supported by China and later by the United States and South Africa. Superpower intervention transformed the independence struggle into a prolonged and violent conflict that devastated the country's infrastructure and led to a civil war that would last nearly three decades.

In Mozambique, the rise of FRELIMO (Mozambican Liberation Front), supported by the Soviet Union, led the country after independence. However, the country soon faced resistance from RENAMO (Mozambican National Resistance), an insurgent movement supported by South Africa and the United States as part of a strategy to curb socialism’s spread in the region. These conflicts, fueled by superpower rivalries, left a legacy of destruction and poverty that deeply impacted the economic and social development of Angola and Mozambique in the following decades.

The lack of a structured transition policy and the direct involvement of superpowers in internal conflicts demonstrate that Portugal’s decolonization was not merely a matter of independence but also a reflection of global geopolitics. By abruptly withdrawing, the Portuguese left power vacuums quickly filled by other nations' strategic agendas, whose interests did not necessarily align with the welfare of local populations.

3.2 Frank Carlucci and American Diplomacy

During the decolonization process, the U.S. Ambassador to Lisbon, Frank Carlucci, played a pivotal role in influencing Portuguese policy in alignment with Western interests. Carlucci, a key figure in diplomatic circles and connected to leaders like Nelson Rockefeller, was tasked with ensuring that Portugal followed a democratic, pro-Western path after the Carnation Revolution.

Carlucci’s approach extended beyond diplomacy; he worked to prevent the more radical sectors of Portugal's new government from aligning with the Soviet Union. His influence was crucial in ensuring that Portugal’s political transition did not result in a socialist shift that might threaten NATO’s stability. His actions reflect a form of “neocolonialism,” where Western powers discreetly shaped the destinies of nations through diplomatic, economic, and sometimes military influence.

In addition to securing a democratic transition in Portugal, Carlucci closely monitored decolonization in African colonies, aware that Angola and Mozambique were strategic targets for Soviet expansion in Africa. In Angola, U.S. policy supported UNITA and FNLA against the MPLA by supplying arms, funding, and training to anti-socialist movements. Behind the scenes, Carlucci and other American diplomats sought to balance support for decolonization with the objective of maintaining Western influence and containing Soviet expansion.

Carlucci and the CIA indirectly backed the FNLA and UNITA, providing support that fueled resistance against the MPLA. This involvement symbolized America’s effort to ensure that Portugal’s withdrawal from Africa would not result in Soviet control over the newly independent states. Carlucci’s decisions, guided by pragmatic geopolitics, left lasting impacts as Angola and Mozambique became prolonged battlegrounds, with civilians suffering the consequences of conflicts that crossed national borders.

4. The Legacy of Colonialism and the Path Forward

The decolonization and end of the Portuguese colonial empire marked a turning point for both Portugal and Africa. This process, though liberating, left a complex legacy with deep impacts on both sides, from emotional scars to structural challenges. For Portugal, the loss of the colonies affected its political, economic, social, and cultural landscape. In the former colonies, the task of nation-building revealed itself to be monumental, often hindered by colonial legacies and foreign interference. This section explores these legacies and reflects on what the future may hold, if founded on a mutual commitment to learning and respect.

4.1 The Legacy for Portugal and Africa

For Portugal, the end of empire brought an urgent need for introspection and redefinition of national identity. Portugal’s economy, which relied heavily on the colonies, faced a crisis as it lost colonial markets and access to natural resources, such as Angola’s oil and Mozambique’s agricultural products. This period, known as the “Hot Summer of 1975,” was marked by social instability, strikes, and a search for answers that resonated across Portuguese society.

In Africa, the legacy of colonialism included not only ethnic and cultural fragmentation but also economic systems designed to serve the metropole, leaving the new nations vulnerable and reliant on primary exports. Angola, for example, was left with oil as one of its few sources of revenue, concentrated in the hands of an elite that benefited from foreign backing, contributing to economic disparities that remain visible today. Mozambique, primarily an agrarian economy, faced similar challenges, compounded by the civil war that followed independence.

This legacy also left positive aspects, such as the Portuguese language, which served as a bridge for the formation of a Lusophone identity. A common language facilitated the establishment of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) in 1996, a platform that promotes economic and cultural cooperation among Portuguese-speaking countries. However, the CPLP still faces challenges in creating a true community of shared interests, given the diverse contexts and needs of each member.

4.2 Reflecting on the Future: Lessons from the Past and Pathways to Collaboration

Looking to the future, it becomes clear that Portugal’s colonial legacy offers valuable lessons for building more balanced relationships. Through a critical and compassionate approach, Portugal and its former colonies can transform these lessons into tools for a future of mutual respect, sustainable growth, and cultural exchange.

4.2.1 Learning from Mistakes: The Need for Historical Reconciliation

The process of historical reconciliation is essential for progress. Recognizing the mistakes made during the colonial period and opening dialogues about past wounds can foster healing and enable both sides to move forward. In Portugal, initiatives like the Musealization of Colonialism and Slavery have advocated for a more comprehensive narrative of colonial history within school curricula.

In the former colonies, cultural and literary voices like Pepetela in Angola and Mia Couto in Mozambique bring critical reflections on decolonization and the nation-building process, helping society process historical traumas. These authors highlight not only resistance to colonialism but also the complexities and internal challenges that arose post-independence, reflecting a collective search for identity and belonging.

Authentic historical reconciliation also requires addressing topics such as the social consequences of colonialism, marginalization of specific communities, and the construction of collective memories. By committing to this, Portugal can foster a deeper understanding among its own citizens and the people of former colonies, strengthening bonds on a foundation of honesty and respect.

4.2.2 Valuing Shared Cultural Heritage

Despite colonial traumas, there exists a rich cultural connection that unites Portugal and Lusophone African countries. The Portuguese language stands as one of the most significant legacies, and over decades, it has been reinvented in each African context, becoming a vehicle for unique national identities. In literature, African authors writing in Portuguese, like José Eduardo Agualusa, explore themes of identity and history, offering the world a rich and diverse view of African pasts and presents.

Music, cinema, and visual arts also play a crucial role in honoring this shared heritage. Artists like Cesária Évora and Bonga explored themes of longing and resistance in their music, while Angolan and Mozambican filmmakers reflect post-independence social realities often intertwined with colonial memories. Portugal can support and encourage these cultural expressions through festivals, artistic collaborations, and academic exchanges, creating platforms where Lusophone nations can share their stories and art.

Moreover, there is significant potential for collaborative cultural projects that address contemporary issues critically, promoting intercultural understanding. By amplifying African voices within the Portuguese-speaking world, Portugal contributes to creating a space where diversity is respected and celebrated.

4.2.3 Portugal’s Role as a Partner in Sustainable Development

Sustainable development represents a key avenue for strengthening relations between Portugal and its former colonies, promoting partnerships that respect autonomy and economic growth for both parties. Rather than perpetuating a dependency model, Portugal can invest in capacity-building and education programs, equipping African nations to tackle their own economic and environmental challenges.

Renewable energy, a sector where Portugal has excelled in recent decades, holds particular promise for cooperation. With Portugal’s established expertise in solar, wind, and hydroelectric technologies, it could support Angola and Mozambique in implementing sustainable infrastructure to meet rising energy demands while reducing dependency on fossil fuels. Both African countries have favorable climates for renewable resources: Angola boasts vast areas with high solar radiation and coastal winds, while Mozambique has one of the highest solar potentials on the continent.

This partnership could include not only building solar and wind farms but also the transfer of knowledge and technologies. Portuguese universities and research centers, such as the Instituto Superior Técnico and the University of Coimbra, could collaborate with institutions in Angola and Mozambique to train local engineers and technicians, ensuring these infrastructures are self-sustaining and managed by local professionals.

Creating a network of pilot projects in strategic regions of Angola and Mozambique could also demonstrate the benefits of renewable energy in rural communities, fostering grassroots sustainable development. Through investments in renewable energies, Portugal not only contributes to the economic growth of these nations but also positions itself as a partner that values environmental respect and energy independence, fostering a long-term relationship based on ethics and mutual benefit.

4.2.4 The Importance of Preserving National Sovereignty

Respect for sovereignty is essential to building a fair and equal partnership. The colonial past demonstrates how foreign interference can destabilize nations and infringe upon their rights to self-determination. Angola, for instance, suffered through a long civil war, partly fueled by the internal divisions exacerbated by colonialism and foreign superpower influence.

For Portugal, respecting the sovereignty of its former colonies means adopting a supportive role without imposing economic interests or political ideologies. Cooperation projects that strengthen democratic institutions and promote human rights, such as the CPLP Institutional Strengthening Program, are essential steps to ensure that Lusophone African nations can fully exercise their autonomy.

Rather than dictating the direction of other nations, Portugal can act as a partner that values the specific contexts and needs of each country, fostering a relationship founded on equality and mutual benefit.

4.2.5 A Call for Unity and Cooperation in the Lusophone World

The concept of a "Lusophone community" carries immense potential. Countries spanning four continents share a language and, to some extent, a history. Transforming this shared heritage into a unifying force requires commitment to mutual cooperation and respect. The Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP), founded in 1996, represents a platform to promote economic development, technical cooperation, and cultural exchange among Lusophone nations.

To fulfill this vision, Portugal must adopt a stance of humility and collaboration. The country can lead CPLP initiatives that support social inclusion, cultural diversity, and sustainable development. Projects such as the CPLP Special Fund, which finances development initiatives in member states, are fundamental to creating a solidarity network where all members contribute to addressing global challenges.

The CPLP can evolve to be more than an economic bloc; it has the potential to become a network of collaboration and mutual support, reflecting lessons from history and promoting a future of unity and growth for all its members.

Works Cited:

1. Simões de Carvalho, Lourdes. O Dia, “Article on the Rockefellers,” March 23, 1980.

2. Le Figaro. Revelation of Roosevelt’s Letter to the Kremlin, February 7, 1951.

3. Conference of Berlin and the Partition of Africa. Tensões Mundiais Journal.

4. Historical Documentation on the Carnation Revolution and its Impacts, Lisbon Archives.

5. Interviews and Records from the National Archives, Portugal.